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Parts of speech are the foundational elements used to construct grammatically correct sentences in English. Each part serves a specific function and contributes to clear and effective communication.
The name of a person, place, thing, or concept serving as subjects or objects in sentences.
Replaces a noun to avoid repetition and make sentences more concise.
Describes or modifies a noun or pronoun by providing more information about it.
Shows action or state of being. In English, verbs follow the noun.
More About Verbs subdirectory_arrow_left
Specifies how, when, where, and to what extent an action takes place.
More About Adverbs subdirectory_arrow_left
Connects words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.
Introduces nouns and give context about which noun is being referenced.
Gives information about another word in the same sentence.
Links a noun or pronoun to another part of the sentence to show relationships.
Nouns are the name of a person, place, thing, or concept. Nouns are typically used as subjects, objects, objects of prepositions, and modifiers of other nouns.
They usually have both a singular and a plural form. Most English nouns are count nouns.
Example: I have one dog. My friend has two dogs.
Some countable nouns in English only appear in the plural form, especially clothing items (pants, shorts, pajamas). These are often used with quantifiers like “a pair of”, “two pairs of”, or “some”.
When unsure of the plural form, consult the dictionary. An English learner’s dictionary, like Merriam-Webster, may be the most helpful.
They have no plural form. Although most English nouns are count nouns, noncount nouns frequently occur in academic writing.
Here are some common categories of noncount nouns. Like all things in English (and language in general), there may be exceptions and others outside these categories.
Note: Noncount nouns do not use the indefinite articles “a” or “an.” They can, however, use the definite article “the” if what is being referred to is specific. They can also use no article if what is being referred to is general (generic) or nonspecific.
When they change from a count to a noncount noun, the meaning changes slightly. In the noncount form, the noun refers to the whole idea or quantity. In the count form, the noun refers to a specific example or type. When the noun is countable, it can be used with the indefinite article “a” or “an” or it can be made plural.
I drink coffee every morning.
In this example, coffee is a noncount noun.
You can identify that coffee is noncount because it’s used without any articles (like “a” or “an”). The sentence is discussing the beverage in general.
I ordered a coffee from the café in the lobby at work.
In this example, coffee is a count noun.
You can identify that coffee is a count noun because it’s used with the article “a.” The sentence is discussing a specific cup or serving.
Some quantity words can only be used with countable singular nouns, some can only be used with countable plural nouns, some can only be used with uncountable nouns, and some can be used with both plural countable nouns and with uncountable nouns.
Use the quantity words “each,” “every,” and “another” with countable singular nouns.
Examples
There are multiple options of quantity words and phrases to use with countable plural nouns.
There are multiple options of quantity words and phrases to use with noncount nouns.
These quantity words and phrases can also be used with countable plural nouns and noncount nouns.
A pronoun replaces a noun or noun phrase to avoid repetition and make sentences more concise.
An adjective describes or modifies a noun or pronoun by providing more information about it, such as specifying the qualities, characteristics, or attributes of a noun or pronoun.
Before the Noun: The diligent student completed the assignment.
“Diligent” describes the noun “student.”
After a Linking Verb: The results were inconclusive.
“Inconclusive” describes the noun “results.”
Remember that adjectives in English have no plural form. The same form of the adjective is used for both singular and plural nouns.
Incorrect: Several talls buildings.
Correct:
Incorrect: Many interestings books.
Incorrect: Some differents ideas.
Verbs show action or state of being. In English, verbs follow the noun.
Example
The students studied for the exam.
“Studied” tells what the students did.
There are also special types of verbs known as auxiliary verbs (also called helping verbs) that are used to build up complete verbs.
Primary auxiliary verbs ("be", "have", "do") show the progressive, passive, perfect, and negative verb tenses.
Modal auxiliary verbs show a variety of meanings. They represent ability, permission, necessity, and degree of certainty. These are always followed by the simple form of the verb.
Modal auxiliary verbs include: "can", "could", "may", "might", "must", "shall", "should", "will", and "would"
The modal auxiliary verbs serve different functions here:
Semimodal auxiliary verbs include:
Future researchers are going to delve more into this topic. They are about to make a breakthrough discovery.
In this example, semimodals (“are going to” and “are about to”) are followed by the simple form of the verb (“delve” and “make”).
Every action in English needs a verb, but not every verb needs something to act upon. Some verbs need an object to make sense (like “bring” - you must bring something), while others can stand alone (like “sleep” - you can just sleep). Understanding when verbs need objects and when they don't will help you write clearer, more accurate sentences.
Some examples of transitive verbs are “address,” “borrow,” “bring,” “discuss,” “raise,” “offer,” “pay,” “write,” “promise,” and “have.”
Incorrect: The speaker discussed in the video.
Correct: The speaker discussed different marketing strategies in the video.
A transitive verb can take more than one object.
Donovan gave his sister a laptop.
However, there is another way to say this same idea using a prepositional phrase.
Donovan gave a laptop to his sister.
You can figure out the direct object by using this question format: “The subject did what?” or “The subject [verb] what?”
The speaker discussed different marketing strategies in the video.
You can find the indirect object by asking the question “To whom?” or “For whom?”
Using an object immediately after an intransitive verb will create an incorrect sentence. However, there may be other information after the verb, such as one or more prepositional phrases or an adverb.
Incorrect: The students arrived Houston.
Correct: The students arrived at the residency in Houston.
Some other examples of intransitive verbs are “deteriorate,” “vote,” “sit,” “increase,” “laugh,” “originate,” “fluctuate,” and “trend.”
In some instances, such a verb may require an object, while in others it does not require an object.
If you are unsure about whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, you can check a dictionary. Most dictionaries, such as the online version of Merriam Webster, indicate whether a verb, and each definition of the verb, is transitive or intransitive. Whether a verb is transitive or intransitive may depend on whether the verb has multiple meanings, so make sure to read through the examples provided in the dictionary.
Adverbs specify how, when, where, and to what extent an action takes place. They can modify the action (verb), a quality (adjective), or another adverb. Depending on the context, the adverb can come before or after the verb or at the beginning or end of a sentence.
She completed the project quickly.
In this sentence, “quickly” specifies how she completed the project.
The test was incredibly difficult.
In this sentence, “incredibly” specifies how difficult the test was.
He completed the work very quickly.
In this sentence, “very” modifies “quickly.”
Conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.
There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, paired, and subordinating.
Coordinating conjunctions connect words or phrases that serve the same grammatical purpose in a sentence. There are seven main coordinating conjunctions in English, which form the acronym FANBOYS.
Transitional words such as “however” and “therefore” can also function as conjunctions.
Paired conjunctions consist of two words or phrases that help make a point or establish alternatives. Although paired conjunctions can be helpful in structuring a sentence, they can also make sentences wordier than necessary, so use these conjunctions sparingly.
Subordinating conjunctions join a subordinate clause to a main clause and establishes a relationship between the two.There are many subordinating clauses, but here are some of the most common.
There are two ways to structure a sentence using a subordinating conjunction:
counter_1 Main clause + subordinate clause
counter_2 Subordinate clause + comma (,) + main clause
Words that introduce nouns and provide context about which specific noun is being referenced. Determiners include possessives, demonstrations, quantifiers, and articles.
Articles (“a,” “an,” and “the”) are determiners or noun markers that function to specify if the noun is general or specific in its reference. Often, the article chosen depends on whether the writer and the reader understand the reference of the noun.
“A” or “an” are used with singular countable nouns when the noun is nonspecific or generic.
I do not own a car.
She would like to go to a university that specializes in teaching.
“University” is a singular countable noun. Although it begins with a vowel, the first sound of the word is /j/ or “y.” Thus, “a” instead of “an” is used. In this sentence, it is also generic (it could be any university with this specialization, not a specific one).
“A” is used when the noun that follows begins with a consonant sound.
“An” is used when the noun that follows begins with a vowel sound.
Sometimes “a” or “an” can be used for first mention (the first time the noun is mentioned). Then, in subsequent sentences, the article “the” is used instead.
In the first sentence (first mention), “a” is used because it is referring to a nonspecified house. In the second sentence, “the” is used because now the house has been specified.
“The” is used with both singular and plural nouns and with both countable and uncountable nouns when the noun is specific.
The book that I read last night was great.
The books assigned for this class are very useful.
Use “the” when the noun being referred to is unique because of our understanding of the world.
Use "the" when a noun can be made specific from a previous mention in the text. This is also known as second or subsequent mention.
“The” is used with superlative adjectives (the first, the second, the biggest, the smallest, the next, the only, etc.).
"The" is used for the following categories of proper nouns:
Writers sometimes struggle with the choice to include an article or to leave it out altogether. If the noun is singular, countable, and nonspecific or generic (like “book” or “author”), the articles “a” and “an” may be used. However, if the noun is countable and plural (like “research studies”) or uncountable (like “information”) and it is being used in a nonspecific or generic way, no article is used.
No article is used when a plural countable noun is generic or nonspecific.
No article is used when a noncount noun is generic or nonspecific.
Sometimes article usage in English does not follow a specific rule. These expressions must be memorized instead.
Here are some examples of phrases where article usage is not predictable:
There are also numerous idiomatic expressions in English that contain nouns. Some of these also contain articles, while others do not. Here are just a few examples:
A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies—that is, gives information about—another word in the same sentence.
I'm going to the Saturn Café for a vegetarian burger.
A modifier can be an adjective (a word that modifies a noun), but it can also be an adverb (a word that modifies a verb).
The student carefully proofread her draft.
A modifier can also be a phrase or clause.
She studied in the library.
When a modifier is ambiguously or illogically modifying a word, we consider it a misplaced modifier. See APA 7, Section 4.23 for more explanation and examples.
Dolger discovered an ancient Mayan civilization using astronavigation.
The modifier, “using astronavigation,” is unclear in this sentence. Does it modify “Dolger” or “civilization”? Was Dolger using astronavigation? Or was the civilization he discovered using astronavigation?
Using astronavigation, Dolger discovered an ancient Mayan civilization.
In this version, the modifier placement makes it clear that “Dolger” is the one using astronavigation.
Dolger discovered an ancient Mayan civilization that used astronavigation.
In this version, the modifier placement makes it clear that the “civilization” used astronavigation.
When a modifier is not modifying a specific word, we call it a dangling modifier.
After consulting a selection of current publications, research in this area has been sparse.
In this example, it is not clear who is consulting the selection of current publications. In other words, there is no referent in the sentence.
After consulting a selection of current publications, I determined that the research in this area has been sparse.
Now the subject in the sentence “I” matches the modifier “after consulting a selection of current publications.”
According to the selection of current publications, research in this area has been sparse.
Now the modifier “according to the selection of current publications” matches the subject “research.”
A preposition links a noun or pronoun to another part of the sentence, showing relationships such as direction, location, time, or cause. They are usually single words (like “on”) but can be up to four-word phrases (like “as a result of”).
Although there are some rules for usage, much preposition usage is dictated by fixed expressions. In these cases, it is best to memorize the phrase instead of the individual preposition.
To refer to a direction, use the prepositions “to,” “in,” “into,” “on,” and “onto.”
To refer to one point in time, use the prepositions “in,” “at,” and “on.”
Use “in” with parts of the day (not specific times), months, years, and seasons.
Use “at” with the time of day.
Use “on” with days.
To refer to extended time, use “since,” “for,” “by,” “during,” “from…to,” “from…until,” “with,” and “within.”
To refer to a place, use the prepositions “in” (the point itself), “at” (the general vicinity), “on” (the surface), and “inside” (something contained).
To refer to an object higher than a point, use the prepositions “over” and “above.”
To refer to an object lower than a point, use the prepositions “below,” “beneath,” “under,” and “underneath.”
To refer to an object close to a point, use the prepositions “by,” “near,” “next to,” “between,” “among,” and “opposite.”
To refer to a spatial relationship, use the prepositions “above,” “across,” “against,” “ahead of,” “along,” “among,” “around,” “behind,” “below,” “beneath,” “beside,” “between,” “from,” “in front of,” “inside,” “near,” “off,” “out of,” “through,” “toward,” “under,” and “within.”
Some verbs and adjectives are followed by a certain preposition. Sometimes verbs and adjectives can be followed by different prepositions, giving the phrase different meanings. To find which prepositions follow the verb or an adjective, look up the verb or adjective in an online dictionary, such as Merriam Webster, or use a corpus, such as The Corpus of Contemporary American English.
Memorizing these phrases instead of just the preposition alone is the most helpful.
Understanding the parts of speech helps you spot and fix common patterns in your writing, build more complex sentences, and clearly express your ideas in writing. Mastering these fundamentals is key to developing your style and enhancing your communication skills.
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